PERBANDINGAN ANTARA TARIF DAN KUOTA
oleh Lee Yun Yi dan Sam Pei Jun
Secara umumnya, sekatan perdagangan dapat dibezakan kepada dua jenis iaitu sekatan tarif dan sekatan bukan tarif. Sekatan tarif merupakan sekatan perdagangan dalam bentuk cukai yang dikenakan atas barang import. Tarif terbahagi kepada tarif ad-valorem, tarif spesifik, dan tarif kompaun. Manakala, kuota import adalah sekatan bukan tarif dan merupakan sekatan perdagangan yang mengehadkan kuantiti maksimum barang yang boleh diimport dalam jangka masa tertentu. Secara amnya, kuota import boleh dibahagikan kepada dua jenis iaitu kuota global dan kuota terpilih. Sekatan perdagangan yang lain bukan tarif seperti kuota kadar-tarif, halangan eksport sukarela (VER), subsidi, dan lambakan.
Perbezaan antara tarif dan kuota boleh dilihat sekiranya berlaku peningkatan permintaan terhadap barang yang diimport. Terdapat 2 buah negara iaitu negara A dan negara B. Keluk permintaan dan penawaran negara A ditunjukkan oleh DA dan SA; SB pula menunjukkan keluk penawaran barang X oleh negara B. Negara A boleh memilih sama ada mengenakan tarif dan kuota ke atas barang X yang diimport untuk melindungi firma domestik.
Rajah 1 : Kesan perdagangan oleh tarif dan kuota
Rajah1(a) Tarif Import Rajah1(b) Kuota Import
Merujuk Rajah 1(a), negara A telah melaksanakan tarif import sebanyak RM2000, ini menyebabkan harga barang X yang diimport dari negara B meningkat daripada RM4000 ke RM6000. Manakala, import barang X jatuh daripada 12 juta kepada 6 juta unit. Andaikan permintaan barang X negara A meningkat daripada DA0 kepada DA1. Permintaan naik tetapi harga barang X kekal pada tingkat harga sama iaitu RM6000. Ini kerana harga di negara A tidak berbeza daripada harga barang X di negara B ditambah dengan cukai tarif. Import barang X naik daripada 6 juta unit ke 9 juta unit. Kesimpulannya, di bawah tarif import, pelarasan domestik berbentuk peningkatan dalam kuantiti barang X yang diimport dan bukan kenaikan dalam harga barang X.
Rajah 1(b) pula menunjukkan negara A telah melaksanakan kuota import yang telah ditetapkan sebanyak 6 juta dan ini meletakkan negara A di dalam keadaan perdagangan yang sama seperti di bawah tarif. Had ditetapkan ke atas barang X menyebabkan harga naik daripada RM4000 kepada RM6000. Andaikan permintaan negara A ke atas barang X meningkat daripada DA0 kepada DA1, ini akan menyebabkan harga barang X domestik naik. Di bawah kuota, tidak ada had di mana harga barang X di negara A boleh meningkat melebihi harga barang X daripada negara B. Dengan kenaikan harga barang X domestik, firma di negara A akan menambahkan pengeluaran. Peningkatan permintaan daripada DA0 ke DA1, menyebabkan harga naik dari RM6000 kepada RM6500. Pada harga baru ini, pengeluaran domestik adalah 5 juta unit, sementara permintaan domestik adalah 11 juta unit. Jumlah import pula 6 unit, iaitu jumlah sama di bawah program kuota sebelum berlakunya peningkatan dalam permintaan. Dalam kes kuota import ini, pelarasan yang berlaku adalah dalam bentuk harga domestik dan bukan kuantiti barang X yang diimport.
Semasa keadaan permintaan bertambah kuota import merupakan halangan perdagangan yang lebih berkesan berbanding dengan tarif import. Dibawah kuota, kerajaan menetapkan kuantiti import; sementara dibawah tarif, harga domestik boleh naik melebihi harga dunia sebanyak jumlah tarif yang dikenakan. Pengguna domestik masih boleh membeli kuantiti import yang tidak terhad jika mereka mahu dan mampu membayarnya. Oleh itu, kuota memberikan industri domestik “siling” ke atas import dan tidak mengambil kira keadaan pasaran yang berubah-ubah.
Tariffs versus Quotas
Generally, trade policy can be categorized by tariffs and nontariff trade barriers. Tariffs can be defined as taxes or duties levied on a product when it crosses national boundaries. Import tariffs levied on imported goods whereas export tariffs levied on exported goods. There are three types of tariffs which are specific tariff, ad valorem tariff and compound tariff. On the other hand, import quota is one of the nontariff trade barriers among the international trade restrictions. Import quota limits the total quantity of goods that may enter a country within a given period. There are two types of import quota which are global quota and selected quota. Other examples for nontariff trade barriers are tariff-rate quotas, voluntary export restraints, subsidies and dumping.
The difference between tariffs and quotas can be show clearly with an example in the case of growing demand. In this case, there are only two countries involve which are country A and country B. The demand and supply curve for country A are given by DA and SA, and SB represents country B supply curve of goods X. Now, country A can choose either tariffs or quotas imposed on the imported goods X to protect its domestic firms.
Figure 1 : Trade Effects of Tariffs and Quotas
Figure 1(a) Import Tariff Figure 1(b) Import Quota
In figure 1(a), country A imposed an import tariff of RM2000 on imported goods X and raises the price of X in country A from RM4000 to RM6000. Quantity of imported goods X falls from 12 million units (13 million units - 1 million units) to 6 million units (10 million units - 4 million units). Now, suppose country A demand for imported goods X rises from DA0 to DA1. Despite the increased demand, the price of imported goods X remains constant at RM6000. This is because the price in country A cannot differ from the price in country B by an amount exceeding the tariff duty. Imported goods X rises from 6 million units (10 million units - 4 million units) to 9 million units (13 million units - 4 million units). Therefore, under an import tariff, domestic adjustment increase the quantity of imported goods X rather than price X.
In figure 1(b), country A imposed an import quota of 6 million units on imported goods X and raises the price of X in country A from RM4000 to RM6000. An identical demand increase will lead to an increase in domestic price of goods X. Under an import quota, there is no limit on the extent to price in country A can rise above the price in country B. Given an increase in price of domestic goods X, companies of country A are able to expand their production. An increase in demand for goods X rises from DA0 to DA1 forces the price up from RM6000 to RM6500. At the new price, domestic production equals 5 million units and domestic consumption equals 11 million units. Total imports remain same amount as under the quota before the increase in domestic demand which is 6 million units. Thus, adjustment occurs in domestic prices rather than quantity of imported goods.
In growing demand, an import quota is a more restrictive trade barrier than import tariff. Under a quota, the government limits the imports quantity arbitrarily whereas under a tariff, the domestic price can rise above the world price by the amount of tariff; domestic consumers can still purchase unlimited imported goods if they are willing and able to pay for them. Therefore, a quota assures the domestic industry a ceiling on imports regardless of changing market conditions.
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